Stephan Rothlin
This double issue of the Macau Ricci Institute Journal 14 and 15 attempts to capture a few glimpses of an extremely rich and demanding reflection on significant changes in the Middle Kingdom of the Yuan Dynasty which relate to the iconic name of Marco Polo whose death some 700 years ago was widely remembered in different parts of the world especially in China and in Italy. A new battle cry provoked many people and cultures to step into the footsteps of the great Venetian traveler namely: you need to come and see it to believe it. Far away countries and cultures no longer seemed just exotic and basically out of reach. A new threshold was crossed: not only missionaries and businesspeople, to some degree anyone with sufficient resources could embark to discover firsthand what cultures and people looked like. In the first part of this issue the reader is challenged to an historical-ethical inquiry into the significance of Marco Polo.
A considerable challenge is involved in grasping the importance of the fundamental leap which occurred in the so-called “early modern” period of the 13th century. Marco Polo’s ventures must be understood in this wider context, as Ingeborg Gabriel explains in a comprehensive way. Culture is a distillation of the human spirit, whereby people in a certain space realize their values. Of course, no culture is an island but part of a universal humanity. Cultural exchange therefore constitutes a central as well as enriching feature of cultures. Relations between East and West have been marred by conflicts, but they have also brought forth fruitful interaction, when the technical means for travel and communication allowed for it. The age of Marco Polo, the so-called High Middle Ages, marks the first period of these contacts. At that time cultural changes took place in the West, which strongly influence developments to this day. For this reason, the period has been called the epoch of Early Modernity. Three of the innovative transformations are featured: a new relation with the material world which led to the development of the natural sciences and technology, as well as economics and trade; a new civic culture, first evident in Italian cities and then throughout Europe, based on deliberation and cooperation. These two transformations in turn were based on an enhanced understanding of the individual as imago Dei (image of God) with his/her specific capabilities, liberty and responsibility. Thus, the time brought forth a sense of humanist and fraternal universalism as the ground on which bridges between cultures and religions can be built. Pope Francis’ made this the central theme of his encyclical Fratelli tutti (2020).
At the core of the reform of the church in this early modern period are the Franciscan and Dominican religious congregations in their drive to reconnect with a genuine commitment to poverty and, in both cases, their attempt at “contemplata tradere”, i.e. to share with others the fruits of their contemplative prayer and reflection. The transformations which took place in the age of Marco Polo thus merit intercultural reflection even today. The fundamental achievement of the Franciscan friar Giovanni da Montecorvino is told in much detail by Leopold Leeb. In 1294 or 1295 Montecorvino reached Beijing, and since he was an envoy from the Pope, the Great Khan Temur, (reigned 1295 to 1307), received him honorably. Montecorvino submitted the letters from the Pope to the Khan and invited the Khan to accept the Christian faith. Temur Khan did not embrace the faith, but he allowed Montecorvino to move around rather freely in his empire, and soon the Italian missionary came to know Kuolijisi阔里吉斯 (Prince George), the leader of the tribe of the Onguts. Like the Keraits the Onguts belonged to the Jingjiao Christians (Nestorians). The Onguts lived in the regions north of Shenxi, in what is Inner Mongolia today. Their capital was at Olon-sume敖伦苏木, of which only ruins have remained. In the years 1938 and 1941 the Japanese scholar Namio Egami discovered the remnants of the church which Montecorvino built in the former capital of the tribe of the Onguts in Olon-sume (today known as relics of Aolun sumu 敖伦苏木in Inner Mongolia). However, there are no relics with inscriptions from that site. From 1295 to 1298 Montecorvino lived there and learned the Mongol language and script. He also began to translate the New Testament and the Psalms into that language. Polo reserves a particular role for Zayton (Quanzhou), a seaport already in the Neolithic age and active for centuries – see the routes to Tai-Ch’in, the Roman Empire (Jenkins, 2008, pp. 64–68), or the return of the Polo family to the West – until the Song period, when shipyards were built: here the great k’un-lun-po and the oceanic junks were launched (Manguin, 1993). The huge docks – in 1345 Ibn Baṭṭūṭa commanded 1,500,000 vessels (Dunn, 2012, pp. 249-250) – and the multi-ethnic context attracted Montecorvino who in 1308 erected there a diocese (Huc, 1857-1858, I, pp. 391-397), enlarged ten years later by a convent and probably with a hospital for the poor, funded with imperial aid (Polo, 1903, I, p. 444).
The Dominican story also aligns with a great missionary effort born out of a shared contemplative tradition based not on monastic elements of common prayer and habit but is open to reach out to people in need. As Edmund Eh analyses, two Dominican friars were instructed by the pope to accompany Marco Polo when he set out for China with his father and uncle. This relationship ended quickly and disappointingly when the two friars Niccolò and William decided not to continue the journey soon after it began. Given the failed attempt at collaboration, it may seem surprising that a group of Italian friars actually took great interest in Marco Polo’s work and developed an extensive and productive relationship with it. This paper presents some early Dominican contributions to the transmission and reception in Europe of Le divisament dou monde (Il Milione)—the narrative of Polo’s travels.
Besides their link with the innovative and reforming missions of the Dominicans and Franciscans, it is important to bear in mind that the travels of Marco Polo significantly broadened the exchange of Western business and medicine, as Gabriele Capecchi explains, highlighting the amazing variety of citrus fruits and their beneficial effects. Several diseases were treated through Chenpi 陳皮 a substance in traditional Chinese medicine and taken from the ‘orange mandarin’ (Citrus reticulata), or similar local varieties such as Citrus tangerina ‘Fujien’ 海红柑, Citrus erythrosa 朱橘, Citrus ponki 甜橘 – and above all the Citrus sinensis ‘Liucheng’ 柳橙. Traces of this fruit can be found in Pisa at the Franciscan monastery of Santa Croce in Fossabanda – coming from Zayton in the mid-fourteenth century for medical purposes – there it was rediscovered in 1674 by Paolo Boccone, botanist of Cosimo III de’ Medici, and merged into the grand-ducal collections, thence depicted by Bartolomeo Bimbi before 1715.
My own reflection takes a step back and focuses on the epistemological implications of travelling as a spiritual journey of genuine encounter with a new culture: how does travelling genuinely open eyes of understanding to other cultures through gradual nuanced and informed discovery? What is the exact meaning of seeing especially when it relates to dealing with cultures and languages which are completely different in comparison to one’s own culture? It may accordingly make sense to distinguish consuming exotic food and strange experiences in foreign countries from attempts to reach a more comprehensive understanding of other cultural contexts through dialogue. Special attention should be given to the multi-faceted aspect of memory reflecting on what has been experienced. How can the memory of a specific historic event lead either to a better understanding of a complex socio-political reality or, conversely, to a significant distortion of historical facts. Is there any chance to direct the attention to historic facts which tend to be overlooked or to be dismissed? There are iconic moments in the life of St. Francis Assisi who had the strong desire to radically follow the poor Christ. Out of his contemplative prayer in hidden corners of Italy emerged the iconic encounter with the Crucified Lord not only seen from a religious perspective but also as a symbolic moment of moving out of one’s comfort zone in order to be able to meet the poor and the needy as well as to become able to experience other cultures with a compassionate heart as the first wave of Franciscans certainly demonstrated.
In a second part of this double issue, we feature some significant outcomes of the research projects of the Macau Ricci Institute, with special attention to hunger communities in Macau, Lebanon and Dumaguete in the Philippines. The focus of the research is certainly related to the overall topic of coming and seeing in order to believe. Especially in times of crises and devastating conflicts we need to make additional efforts to understand complex social realities. Even in the case of Macau the situation during Covid, despite the enormous help of the food tickets distributed by the local government, should not lead us to assume that all circles of the Macanese society could cope equally well with the food crisis. Based on face-to-face interviews and non-participant observations the Macau research team did reach out to operators, staff members, volunteers, donors, and beneficiaries of food distribution programs. The questionnaire was based on the entitlement approach of Amartya Sen who has conducted far reaching extended analysis of hunger catastrophes which occur not simply because of food shortages, but more significantly due to lack of access to social and political rights. On the positive side the team has identified social innovation variables with invaluable lessons how resilience and unity within a fragmented socio-political landscape could be restored after devastating crises.
Macao’s social patronage is rooted in historical, cultural, and political factors, and it remains a significant aspect of Macao’s societal dynamics (Chong, 2016; Feng & He, 2011; R. Zhang, 2024). Therefore, the Macao government has developed a new type of patron-client network with thousands of local interest groups (more than 11,700 registered associations). Before the 1980s, interest groups provided social welfare services. As the government’s activities expanded to social services and cultural activities, those interest groups became the government’s “executive arms” under the patronage system (Chou, 2005). As more prominent associations support government policies, they receive subsidies to finance their activities (Sheng, 2017). While critics argue that patronage networking is directed at maintaining the ruling elite’s legitimacy, local associations can act as intermediaries between the government and residents, thereby providing social services, financial aid, or job opportunities, as well as charitable activities to fund community events, education, and healthcare. In that sense, social patronage supports public participation, directly reflecting community needs and interests.
The team in Lebanon led by Francis Ziad and Rita Daniel provides a comprehensive examination of the Lebanese Food Bank (LFB), a non-governmental organization established in 2011 to combat hunger and reduce food waste across Lebanon. Operating as a neutral and inclusive entity, LFB delivers vital food assistance to the country’s most vulnerable populations, upholding international standards for food safety and accountability. The urgency of LFB’s mission is underscored by Lebanon’s ongoing economic crisis, which has driven over two million citizens below the poverty line and left hundreds of thousands struggling with extreme food insecurity. LFB’s holistic approach includes the redistribution of surplus food through a nationwide network, support for marginalized groups, and the promotion of sustainable, community-driven solutions. The report highlights the organization’s vision of achieving a hunger-free Lebanon by 2030, detailing its volunteer-driven operations, innovative use of technology, and collaborative partnerships with local farms, businesses, and NGOs.
As we look in an objective oriented way for viable solutions the very important aspect as emphasized by the three case studies from the Philippines by Casinyo, Remollo and McCann is the strength of traditional Filipino values, like “bayanihan,” a community spirit that prompts people to reach out to support others in their need, especially in times of disaster. Such values still inspire local initiatives, like the Panag-Ambitay Community Pantry, that responded to the needs of pedicab drivers, suddenly deprived of their income because of the COVID restrictions.
Finally, it seems also appropriate to honor a master of dialogue and outreach to the poor who left the world on Easter Monday: Pope Francis. The last mission of Pope Francis to Asia Pacific concluded in Singapore, where he met with young representatives of various faiths at the Catholic Junior College. “If you dialogue as young people, ” Francis said, “then you will be able to do so as citizens and as members of a community. ” But Francis also had a warning for young people: Throughout history, he pointed out, “the first thing a dictatorship does is take away dialogue. ” (Lubov, 2024)
Pope Francis paid special attention to forced displacement and spelled out the morality that ought to guide immigration policies, as Dennis McCann explains: “One must recognize,” declared Francis in an address to the bishops of the United States, “the right of a nation to defend itself and keep communities safe from those who have committed violent or serious crimes while in the country or prior to arrival. That said, the act of deporting people who in many cases have left their own land for reasons of extreme poverty, insecurity, exploitation, persecution or serious deterioration of the environment, damages the dignity of many men and women, and of entire families, and places them in a state of particular vulnerability and defenselessness.”
The issue of migration is certainly one of the most sensitive political issues and even in the aftermath of the death of Pope Francis this issue will remain deeply divisive. Certain populist political regimes, as well as certain liberal economic approaches, as Pope Francis has consistently argued maintain that an influx of migrants is to be prevented at all costs. Arguments are also made for the propriety of limiting aid to poor countries, so that they can hit rock bottom and find themselves forced to take austerity measures. Here comes the important prophetic voice of the Church which should never be silenced when it points out the failure behind such statements, where abstract ideas and hard to support policies, put a great numbers of lives at risk. Many migrants have fled from war, persecution and natural catastrophes. Often many just lack the experience to understand people who have truly suffered from hatred, discrimination and armed conflicts. Others, rightly, are seeking opportunities for themselves and their families. They dream of a better future and they want to create the conditions for achieving it.
Finally, the recent historic visit of King Charles III with Pope Leo XIV at the Vatican can certainly be considered as an ecumenical breakthrough. Martyn Percy however still addresses the unresolved nature of the Church of England’s identity. Since 1834, many Anglicans have bought into the myth, so Percy, that it possesses two pedigrees: Protestant-Reformed and Catholic. Some Anglicans would even go further, entertaining the strong desire of reunion with Rome, forgetting that the core theology of the Church of England is Reformed Protestantism and that the Head of the Church is the reigning English monarch, not the occupant of the Vatican. Keeping respectfully divergent ecclesiological models in mind it seems therefore of great symbolic and ecumenical importance that Pope Leo XIV and King Charles were praying together at St. Peter. Does it indicate the breaking of a deadlock which lasted over centuries? Of course, we should not jump to premature conclusions. However, the worst deadlock, as the former General of the Jesuits, Fr. Peter-Hans Kolvenbach SJ pointed out based on a critical assessment of many years of involvement in high level ecumenical commissions, involves the serious risk that representatives of different religious communities would actually not bother if the current divisions among Christian denominations would continue to persist. The current double-issue of the Macau Ricci Institute, on the contrary, may provide some key arguments to never give up on mutual dialogue no matter how deeply divisive a situation even in the realm of inter-religious dialogue may appear to be.
Stephan Rothlin, Director of the Macau Ricci Institute, Macau and CEO of Rothlin International Management Consulting Limited, Beijing and Hong Kong
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