Alexandre LEBEL, Karen TAGULAO, I Wa LOU, Stephan ROTHLIN SJ

Abstract

This article examines the attitudes and policy implications surrounding food insecurity in relation to social welfare programs, community associations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and the private sector. We describe the ‘relationship of persons to the food supply’ (Sen 2010), as observed in Macao, and we use this framework to highlight general policies regarding social welfare. We conducted face-to-face interviews with operators, volunteers, and beneficiaries of various food distribution programs, examining how different associations and private initiatives address gaps in food distribution and access to food.

Introduction

　　The Macao Special Administrative Region is a small, densely populated territory located on the southern coast of China. The Portuguese heritage in Macao is visible in its culture and architecture, particularly in numerous churches that reflect Portugal’s Catholic influence. While the gaming industry makes the most significant contribution to Macao's economy, reliance on gaming and tourism makes it vulnerable to fluctuations in global travel and regional competition, as experienced during the COVID-19 pandemic (Noronha et al., 2021; Zhou et al., 2022). Moreover, the displacement of local workers and the high cost of living can potentially create economic inequality, and poorer residents may struggle to afford necessities, including food (Li & Zeng, 2015; Zheng & Hung, 2011). As Macao relies heavily on imported food, price fluctuations can restrict access to certain products (Xu et al., 2024).

Welfare policies and social patronage

　　In a market economy, ownership implies a right (or entitlement) to possess something, such as food items. Amartya Sen’s Poverty and Famines (Sen, 2010) defines various relations, such as trade agreements, resource production, and inheritance, which entitle their owners legally. Accordingly, people can exchange what they own, such as labor and commodities, for other goods and services.

　　While various studies advocated for social security policies to mitigate the higher cost of living and reduce inequalities, particularly among the aging population (Hui et al., 2012; H. Wang et al., 2024; X. Wang et al., 2023), investment in labor laws, employment opportunities, social welfare programs, and access to social benefits, have been progressively implemented (W. L. Lai, 2008). For instance, under the ‘Healthcare Subsidy Scheme’, the Health Bureau of the Macao Government distributes healthcare vouchers to each permanent resident to subsidize medical expenses. Under the ‘Wealth Partaking Scheme,’ the Social Welfare Bureau distributes the ‘Subsidy for Senior Citizens’ and ‘Disability Subsidies’. The Housing Bureau assists residents with limited financial means in accessing public housing through leasing (subsidized home ownership) and social housing units where tenants are exempt from paying rent. The Labour Affairs Bureau provides legislation regarding various guaranteed benefits, including the minimum wage for employees, severance pay, and the right to compensation for occupational accidents and occupational diseases. The government also provides subsidy programs for unemployed workers participating in training, as well as for hiring youth and individuals with disabilities seeking employment. Finally, the Financial Services Bureau subsidizes utilities and public transportation.

Case studies

　　While the Macao government does not directly operate food assistance programs, general subsidies and regulations mitigate food insecurity. Additionally, the government funds various associations that provide food assistance, including the Short-term Food Assistance Programme, which is outsourced to Caritas Macao and supported by the Social Welfare Bureau. Accordingly, the government has developed a type of patron-client network with thousands of local interest groups. Macao’s social patronage is rooted in historical, cultural, and political factors, and it remains a significant aspect of Macao’s societal dynamics (Chong, 2016; Feng & He, 2011; R. Zhang, 2024). Before the 1980s, interest groups provided social welfare services. As the government’s activities expanded to social services and cultural activities, those interest groups became the government’s ‘executive arms’ under the patronage system (Chou, 2005). Local associations can act as intermediaries between the government and residents, providing social services, financial aid, job opportunities, and charitable activities to support community events, education, and healthcare. In this sense, social patronage fosters public participation, directly reflecting the community’s needs and interests.

　　We conducted face-to-face interviews with associations/organizations that provide food assistance services to low-income individuals. Interviewees include operators, staff members, volunteers, donors, and beneficiaries of food distribution programs. The questionnaire was based on the entitlement approach (Sen, 2010) and the social innovation approach (Buckland & Murillo, 2013). We identified five social innovation variables: 1) social impact, 2) economic sustainability and viability, 3) collaboration between sectors, 4) type of innovation, and 5) scalability and replicability. Interviews were recorded in audio format for data processing (transcription and translation to English). We obtained informed consent from all participants, ensuring their confidentiality and privacy. The research adheres to the ethical guidelines and regulations regarding data collection, analysis, and storage, as stipulated by Esade’s Ethics Committee.^[1]

Oxfam Macao

　　Founded in 2000, Oxfam Macao is part of the global Oxfam network, dedicated to alleviating poverty and inequality, with a focus on promoting social justice, human rights, and sustainable livelihoods. During the COVID-19 pandemic, Oxfam Macao partnered with the Bosco Youth Service Network (BYS), Centro Comunitário Sun Tou Tong, The Salvation Army Joy Family Integrated Service Center, and União Geral das Associações dos Moradores de Macau to distribute rice to nearly 3,000 low-income households.

　　Since 2016, Oxfam Macao has organized the ‘Market Treasure Hunt’ as an extension of the World Poverty Day program and the Leftovers Recycling Project in collaboration with the Bosco Youth Service and the Salvation Army. Three times per week, volunteers and staff meet with market vendors to collect excess perishables (vegetables, fruits, buns, fish bones) close to expiration or overripe. The perishable nature of the food motivates donation, but at the same time, creates additional challenges. For instance, the amount of donations depends on market sales and weather conditions. Additionally, food items must be inspected individually after collection and distributed to the beneficiaries on the same day at a nearby school.

　　Most beneficiaries are retired people who receive government pensions and allowances. While the activity is promoted online, elderly beneficiaries may not be familiar with using the internet. They may only learn about the activity from social workers or friends. In general, the beneficiaries expressed satisfaction in saving money and meeting people, and the donors were happy that the food was not wasted. While Oxfam and its partners support volunteers and staff members, participation is unstable due to limited availability outside working hours. Therefore, even if the activity can be easily replicated in other locations, human resources are the most significant challenge to scalability. First, considerable training is necessary to complete multiple tasks efficiently on the same day. Second, regular volunteers are essential for building relationships with the vendors and providing a sense of recognition. Nevertheless, similar activities are conducted in several districts and in other forms, such as a clothes recycling program.

Macao Eco-Conscious Community Fridge

　　Launched during the COVID-19 pandemic, the Macao Eco-Conscious Community Fridge offers a space where surplus food, donated by local businesses and individuals, can be freely accessed by those in need. It not only helps to alleviate food insecurity but also raises awareness about environmental issues related to overconsumption and waste in a city known for its rapid development and high consumption rates. The project embodies the principles of the circular economy, encouraging both individuals and businesses to contribute to a more sustainable and compassionate urban environment. The organization does not have formal branches outside of Macao but has built relationships with Filipino and Vietnamese migrant workers, who benefit from the food distributions. The operator states that they are currently only reaching a small fraction of the potential food waste in Macao, but high rent challenges access to suitable space. The organization is currently supported by the Catholic Pastoral Center, which provides space for food storage and distribution. The organization ensures the quality of the food by inspecting it for freshness and ensuring it meets the required standards. For example, the organization has established agreements with local hotels and casinos to accept food donations that would otherwise be discarded, thereby avoiding waste and promoting a sustainable approach to food distribution. The food bank’s efforts are primarily promoted through social media, and despite limited resources and logistical constraints, the organization remains focused on increasing its local impact before considering expansion.

Caritas Macao

　　Caritas Macao is a prominent non-profit organization dedicated to providing social services to vulnerable groups in Macao, including low-income individuals, families, children, the elderly, and those with special needs. Caritas Macao launched its short-term food assistance service in 2011 to address food insecurity and support individuals and families facing financial hardship. The service provides emergency food relief, helping to alleviate immediate difficulties while fostering long-term solutions to poverty through community collaboration. The Ming Liang Fong food bank, a branch of Caritas in Macao, primarily provides emergency short-term food assistance to the elderly, low-income families, and other vulnerable groups. Government funding and charitable donations are the primary sources of financial support, ensuring long-term sustainability. The food bank's social impact is significant, as it aids near-poor families in overcoming economic difficulties, often linked to the high cost of living in Macao. It also contributes to building a more harmonious society by raising awareness of poverty. Additionally, the food bank helps recipients navigate their emotional and mental health challenges by offering referrals to other social welfare services. Accordingly, some staff members mentioned that future facilities could include private spaces for individuals to share their concerns and expand emotional support services.

　　The food bank ensures the quality of its food through regular supplier evaluations and annual tenders, and efforts are made to meet diverse cultural and dietary needs. Challenges include communication difficulties, particularly with recipients who speak dialects or have unstable physical or mental conditions. Despite these obstacles, staff members are optimistic about the replicability of the food bank’s model in other regions, noting that its methods remain consistent across different service points. The model implementation should rely on strengthening collaborations with other social welfare organizations to provide more comprehensive assistance. Therefore, the interviews with beneficiaries highlight the significant role the Ming Liang Fong food bank plays in providing essential food support and social assistance, as many are elderly, unemployed, or facing health challenges, with limited or no regular income. Most beneficiaries learn about the food bank through word of mouth, often from family, friends, or neighbors, and they appreciate its proximity, with locations generally within walking distance of their homes. However, they expressed a desire for more nutritious food options, such as fresh fruits and vegetables. Despite these concerns, the food bank remains a vital source of support for those who rely on it, providing essential food and a sense of community and care.

Temporary and non-official support

　　Spontaneous initiatives, business operators, and religious groups represent a non-official form of food assistance. Some corporations, shop owners, and religious administrators declined to participate in the interview due to concerns about confidentiality. Nevertheless, our research suggests that many local and international businesses are involved, at various levels, in charitable work related to food assistance. For example, Mother’s Meal was established in response to the COVID-19 pandemic to support families facing financial hardship and foreign workers who were unable to return home. Local restaurants offered meals at a discount price, covered by the St. Lawrence Church. Knowledge of the activity spread by word of mouth, and at its peak, 70 meals were distributed daily, also providing relief from isolation to elderly beneficiaries, who eventually developed friendships. Also, U Po Wo is a family-owned herbal tea and Chinese herbal cuisine shop that, as part of its regular operation, distributes excess production to neighbors to minimize waste. Since the products are prepared daily, they are always suitable for consumption. The distribution mainly relies on word of mouth. Therefore, the ability to donate depends on the business's sustainability and the local demand for soups and herbal teas.

Discussion

　　While unfavorable or declining exchange entitlements affect the quality or quantity of food that is accessible, various welfare or charity programs can help mitigate the impact. The effectiveness of food assistance programs in Macao can be measured in terms of their social impact, economic sustainability, collaboration between sectors, innovation, scalability, and replicability (Buckland & Murillo, 2013).

　　Macao’s social welfare policies align with studies that suggest that structural interventions—such as public housing, vocational training and employment support, labor protections, and access to healthcare—can yield more substantial benefits for low-income families than direct food aid alone (Seo & Park, 2021; Fu et al., 2023; Rai & Blane, 2024). Nevertheless, access to food is exposed to the market economy. On the one hand, the availability of ‘reclaimed’ food depends on a profit-oriented market, mainly driven by tourism. As the tourism industry increases demand for all products, residents and suppliers must also contend with high food prices and importation costs. On the other hand, reclaimed food products typically fall at the lower end of the market and may be restricted to specific categories, or the information may only reach particular groups. In other words, only the most vulnerable groups may receive some support, and such aid is limited in quantity and quality. First, initiatives such as the Market Treasure Hunt, Community Fridge, and U Po Wo promote food waste reduction while supporting those in need; however, relying on excess food may not be a sustainable approach. Although food waste is a public concern in Macao (Liang et al., 2021), market vendors and shops prefer to minimize waste generation. Nevertheless, as the tourism industry is bound to fluctuate, enhancing reclaimed food programs remains relevant. Second, low-income households may prioritize affordability over variety or quality: low-income families may receive goods at prices lower than average or for free (excess production or unwanted items), but reclaimed food is often limited to perishable products (primarily vegetables and fruits of lesser quality).

　　In general, the case studies underline a positive social impact on the community. For example, activities such as Mother’s Meal or Market Treasure Hunt provide a social network for the elderly, and the Community Fridge reaches out to foreign workers. This networking between individuals translates directly into cooperation between sectors, such as the formal collaboration between Caritas Macao and the Social Welfare Bureau, the participation of the Catholic Church in Community Fridge and Mother’s Meal, and the coordination between volunteering programs from Oxfam Macao and local associations. As the scalability of a given program depends on volunteer participation, Macao’s patronage system fosters a high degree of social and institutional networking between government bodies, religious organizations, educational institutions, interest groups, and private establishments. This network helps raise public awareness among potential donors and recruit new volunteers, thereby encouraging program scalability and replicability. The challenge is establishing an official framework to coordinate volunteer teams and donors, thereby optimizing the collection of reclaimed food. The successful collaboration between the Social Welfare Bureau and Caritas Macao demonstrates that it is possible.

　　For financial stability, food banks in Macao must secure diverse funding sources, including government support, private donations, corporate sponsorships, and community fundraising efforts. For example, partnerships with Macao’s thriving casino and hospitality industries can provide stable financial backing. In fact, some hotels in Macao already support food bank-related initiatives. Additionally, public awareness and consistent engagement encourage ongoing donations and support, as building long-term relationships with local businesses can provide a more dependable funding base, ensuring continued operations.

　　In terms of innovation, food reclaiming activities successfully integrate three components: waste reduction, community networking, and social responsibility. Fostering this model is relevant, even in a prosperous society like Macao, because it applies to other commodities (such as clothing, furniture, toys, and electronics) and, more importantly, it offers a quick and efficient response mechanism in emergencies, as seen during the COVID-19 pandemic. Although waste reduction and food reclaiming can be perceived as market-driven decisions, they also promote wealth distribution. Furthermore, as interest groups can mobilize volunteers efficiently and rapidly, the collaboration between different associations facilitates logistics and extends capabilities. While registration is typically straightforward, some individuals may not be familiar with using smartphones, certain services are restricted to residents, and language barriers exist between stakeholders. Beneficiaries often obtain information through word of mouth, suggesting that isolated individuals may not be aware of the programs. As food banks can create more streamlined partnerships with local hotels, restaurants, and supermarkets to redirect surplus food to those in need, digital resources could allow recipients to select the specific food items they need, thereby reducing food waste and improving the promotion and efficiency of the distribution process.

　　Scaling up food bank programs locally includes the ability to expand capacity during economic downturns or emergencies, such as the COVID-19 pandemic. To achieve this, programs need to strengthen partnerships with local supporters and organizations, as well as increase the number of food storage and distribution points across various areas of the city. Despite Macao’s unique socio-economic conditions, its approach to integrating social responsibility with environmental sustainability offers a valuable example of addressing food insecurity and food waste. The collaboration between government, non-profits, businesses, and communities shows how multiple sectors can work together to tackle complex social issues, such as reducing food waste, building community networks, and ensuring access to food for vulnerable groups.

Conclusion

　　Although food insecurity is not a primary concern in Macao, the cost of living and market fluctuations may increase the difficulty of accessing food products. Case studies demonstrate that food access for low-income households in Macao relies on intricate networking among individuals, interest groups, organizations, and government bodies. While this model is derived from local governance practices, it is adapted to a market economy, striking a balance between environmental and social responsibility. To ensure the sustainability of food assistance programs and to prevent food insecurity, collaboration between sectors must be maintained, and volunteering should be promoted. Even modest programs facilitate social and community networking, thereby strengthening Macao’s social fabric and integrating vulnerable groups into social activities, especially the elderly. Challenges remain regarding economic sustainability, food quality, and the equitable distribution of resources. Many of the programs are dependent on volunteer participation, short-term donations, and ad hoc partnerships, making long-term financial stability a critical concern for future growth.

Acknowledgments

　　This work was part of the research project ‘Understanding Community Responses to Famine and Emergency Food Assistance: A Comparative Study of Lebanon, Dumaguete, and Macau’, funded by the Macau Foundation through the Macau Ricci Institute. We gratefully acknowledge all the project members for sharing preliminary results and methodological insights, which informed the development of our study design. We are grateful to Ms. Leong Mei Kei and Ms. Lau Ieng Ho for their assistance with the revision and translation of the documents.

^[1]https://www.esade.edu/faculty-research/en/research/research- services/research-ethics.

Alexandre LEBEL, University of Saint Joseph, Institute of Science and Environment.

Karen TAGULAO, University of Saint Joseph, Institute of Science and Environment.

I Wa LOU.

Stephan Rothlin is Director of the Macau Ricci Institute at the University of St. Joseph, Macau and Professor Emeritus of Faculty of Business and Law of the University of the University of St. Joseph, Macau.

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